Matti Friedman of the Associated Press published news about a recent excavation in the City of David in Jerusalem, near the Gihon Spring. The excavation revealed an interesting set of markings carved into the stone floor of a room, and expert archeologists cannot determine what their meaning or use was. The markings consist of three “V” marks, or perhaps gammadia “Γ,” although one is inverted from the other two, plus a straight line mark. They date to about 800 B.C.

None of the experts are even guessing at what these marks were use for, or why they’re there; “no one… has any idea.” The report does venture some speculation, however,

“They might have had a ritual function or one that was entirely mundane… The purpose of the complex is part of the riddle. The straight lines of its walls and level floors are evidence of careful engineering, and it was located close to the most important site in the city, the spring, suggesting it might have had an important function. A unique find in a room beside the one with the markings -- a stone like a modern grave marker, which was left upright when the room was filled in -- might offer a clue. Such stones were used in the ancient Middle East as a focal point for ritual or a memorial for dead ancestors, the archaeologists say… But the ritual stone does not necessarily mean the whole complex was a temple. It might simply have marked a corner devoted to religious practice in a building whose purpose was commonplace.”

It’ll be interesting to see what they discover further about these strange markings. They remind me of some similar stone markings I saw a few years ago that date from a completely different time and place, found on the exterior wall of a very old church in Toledo, Spain. I took a picture, below.

Ancient markings excavated in Jerusalem stump experts

Of course, in Joseph Smith’s day, such discoveries had not been made yet, and so Joseph was mocked for his story of having discovered gold plates with the writings of ancient people inscribed on them.

Today it is becoming commonplace to find such ancient texts, which is why in the dozens of media reports on the emergence of the lead plates this past week, not one questioned the fact that the writings were on metal.  In fact, one scholar specifically noted that there were examples of ancient metal tablets made out of copper, bronze, and gold.

Here is a summary of only some of the most prominent findings.  

Etruscan Gold Book, dating to 600 BC (click to enlarge)

Etruscan Gold Book

This is believed to be the oldest complete multiple page book found in the world.  It is made of six plates of gold, each 5 x 4.5 cm, and bound with two rings.  It dates to 600 BC.

It was unearthed from a tomb some 60-70 years ago, along the Strouma River in southwestern Bulgaria.  It was donated to the Bulgarian National Museum of History in Sofia, Bulgaria, in 2003.  The plates contain text in Etruscan characters, and was likely a type of prayer book made for the funeral of an aristocrat.

This discovery is especially interesting to Latter-day Saints because the date places it at the same time as when Lehi and his family left Jerusalem, indicating that this form of bookmaking and bookbinding was practiced in the Mediterranean region at the time.  It is similar to the description that Joseph Smith gave of the gold plates of the Book of Mormon.

More Information:

• John A. Tvedtnes, "Etruscan Gold Book from 600 B.C. Discovered," Insights: A Window on the Ancient World 23/5 (October 2003)
• “Unique book goes on display,” 26 May 2003, BBC News

Pyrgi Gold Tablets, dating to 500 BC (click to enlarge)

Pyrgi Gold Tablets

This set of three gold plates was discovered in 1964 in an excavation of a sanctuary in ancient Pyrgi, in Italy.  They contain holes around their edges, which indicates that they were likely bound together in some form at one point.

The plates date to 500 BC, and contain a dedication by King Thefarie Velianas to the Phoenician goddess Astarte.  Two have Etruscan text, and the third has Phoenician.

William Hamblin notes that these plates are:

…a prime example of the spread of the Phoenician practice of writing sacred texts on golden plates from their original center in Phoenicia, via Carthage, to Italy, and is roughly contemporary with the Book of Mormon’s claim that sacred texts were written on metal plates by the Phoenicians’ closer neighbors, the Jews.

The Pyrgi Tablets are now at the National Etruscan Museum in Rome, Italy.

More Information:

• William J. Hamblin, “Sacred Writing on Metal Plates in the Ancient Mediterranean,” FARMS Review (19/1), Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 2007, p. 37--54
• Pyrgi Tablets, Wikipedia.

Copper Scroll, dating to 50-100 AD, reproduction above, actual pieces below, photo of roll above-right (click to enlarge)

Copper Scroll

Perhaps the most famous example of ancient writing on metal plates is the Copper Scroll, found among the Dead Sea Scrolls in Qumran by an archeologist in 1952.  Its Hebrew text was inscribed on two rolls of coppper, and dates to 50-100 AD.

Because it was found in rolls, and the metal was corroded, it had to be cut apart into 23 strips to be read.  Both rolls were part of the same document.  The text, interestingly, describes the locations of hidden temple treasures from the Second Temple of Jerusalem.  In other words, it’s a kind of treasure map.

William Hamblin notes its similarity to the plates of the Book of Mormon:

…it is a clear example of an attempt to preserve an important sacred record by writing on copper/bronze (Heb. nechushah) plates and then hiding the document.

Unfortunately, no hidden temple treasures have yet been discovered by reading the text.

More Information:

• William J. Hamblin, “Sacred Writing on Metal Plates in the Ancient Mediterranean,” FARMS Review (19/1), Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 2007, p. 37--54
• John A. Tvedtnes, “Copper Scroll from Qumran,” Book of Mormon Research.
• Copper Scroll, Wikipedia.

Korean Diamond Cutter Sutra Gold Plates, dating to 8th century AD (click to enlarge)

Korean Diamond-Cutter Sutra Gold Plates

This is a set of nineteen gold plates that was found in December, 1965, buried under a five-storied pagoda in Iksan, Korea.  Each plate measures 14.8 x 13.7 cm and was found inside a bronze box inside a stone box.  The plates are hinged together, and have two gold bands that wrap around the plates.  They date to the 8th century AD.

The plates contain the text of the Diamond-Cutter Sutra.  A Maxwell Institute publication by David Honey and Michael Lyon describe it:

The text opens with a group of monks who circumambulate the living Buddha three times and then sit down to listen to his teachings… He warns of a future period called the “Latter Days of the Law” when the oral transmission will have decayed. He prophesies that there will be at least some enlightened beings who will understand and teach his true doctrine. He then promises that the country that preserves and teaches this sutra will have to be honored and worshiped by the worlds of gods, men, and evil spirits. It will become like a chaitya, or temple. It is apparent that this promise was the motivation for Korean Buddhists to inscribe the sutra on gold plates and preserve it under a pagoda.

The plates are part of National Treasure No. 123, and located at the National Museum of Korea in Seoul.

More Information:

• David Honey and Michael Lyon, “An Inscribed Chinese Gold Plate in Its Context: Glimpses of the Sacred Center,” in The Disciple as Scholar: Essays on Scripture and the Ancient World in Honor of Richard Lloyd Anderson, Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute
• John A. Tvedtnes, “Korean Diamond Sutra,” Book of Mormon Research.
• Paul R. Cheesman, “Ancient Writing on Metal Plates,” Ensign, October, 1979, 42.

Silver Scrolls, dating to 600 BC (click to enlarge)

Silver Scrolls

Discovered in 1979, these scrolls were found inside one of a series of burial caves called Ketef Hinnom in a hillside just west of Jerusalem.  They were two small silver scrolls, about 1″ x 4″ in size, and much care was taken over a three year period to unroll them to read them.  They had archaic Hebrew text on them.  They determined that the scrolls date to approximately 600 BC, very near the time that Lehi left Jerusalem.

Amazingly, the scrolls contain the oldest surviving citations of the Hebrew Bible, in addition to the oldest surviving reference to Yahweh (Jehovah or LORD). The text comes from primarily Numbers 6:24-26, which is a priesthood blessing (or ordinance) the Lord instructed Moses to teach Aaron to give to the Israelites.

This shows that the Jerusalem people of Lehi’s time did, indeed, write sacred texts on metal, and provides evidence that the first five books of Moses existed at the time Lehi left Jerusalem, which would have been required if the brass plates were to contain them (1 Nephi 5:11).

Another interesting note is that these scrolls were meant to be rolled up and likely worn around the neck, serving as an amulet, to “provide a blessing that will be used to protect the wearer from some manner of evil forces.”

More information:

• Ketef Hinnom, Wikipedia
• John Noble Wilford, “Solving a Riddle Written in Silver,” The New York Times, 28 September 2004
• “Scriptures on 2,600-Year-Old Silver Scrolls Found in Jerusalem,” Ensign 17 (June 1987): 56-57
• William J. Adams Jr., ”Lehi’s Jerusalem and Writing on Silver Plates,” Journal of Book of Mormon Studies (3/1), Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute, 1994, p. 204-06
• Gary D. Myers, “‘Silver scrolls’ are oldest O.T. scripture, archaeologist says,” Baptist Press, 27 Feb 2004
• Stephen Caesar, “The Blessing of the Silver Scrolls,” Associates for Biblical Research, 6 Jan 2010

Darius I Persepolis Gold Plates, dating to 518 - 515 BC (click to enlarge)

Darius I Persepolis Gold Plates

These plates were found by archeologists in 1938, in Persepolis, near modern day Shiraz, Iran.  There were two gold plates and two silver plates in a stone box, written on in cuneiform script.  The plates date to 518 – 515 BC.

The text found on each of the plates was the same:

"Darius the great king, king of kings, king of countries, son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenid. King Darius says: This is the kingdom which I hold, from the Sacae who are beyond Sogdia to Nubia, and from Sind to Lydia - [this is] what Ahuramazda, the greatest of gods, bestowed upon me. May Ahuramazda protect me and my royal house!"

This reminds me of the divine bestowals of power, protection, prosperity, and seed found among the Egyptians, and even on the Rosetta Stone.

The plates are now located at the national museum in Tehran, Iran.

• John A. Tvedtnes, “Darius I Persepolis Tablets,” Book of Mormon Research
• Persepolis, Apadana Palace, Wikipedia

Petelia tablet, one of the Orphic Gold Plates, dating to fourth century BC (click to enlarge)

Orphic Gold Tablets or Plates

This is a remarkable set of about 35 small pieces of gold foil that have been found in ancient tombs across Greece and Rome.  They are inscribed in Greek text, and most date to the fourth century BC.

The text on these plates gives instructions to the dead on how to navigate the afterlife, especially what they should say or do on their journey there.  As David Larsen describes them:

… [they] give specific instructions for what the initiate is to do during their journey into the  Afterlife, including meeting a number of guardians and gods who will ask them questions and to whom they must give certain passwords.

David Larsen has provided an amazing LDS perspective on these in a series of articles at his blog, HeavenlyAscents.com:

• David Larsen, “Instructions for the Netherworld: The Orphic Gold Tablets,” HeavenlyAscents.com, 18 June 2009
• David Larsen, “The Orphic Gold Tablets: Arriving in the Afterlife and the Importance of Memory for Salvation,” HeavenlyAscents.com, 26 June 2009
• David Larsen, “The Orphic Gold Tablets: A ‘Ritual for the Dead’,” HeavenlyAscents.com, 2 July 2009
• David Larsen, “The Tree of Life as Nurturing Mother,” HeavenlyAscents.com, 12 July 2009
• David Larsen, “The Orphic Gold Tablets: ‘The Longed-For Crown’,” HeavenlyAscents.com, 31 July 2009

Questionable Findings

There are some discoveries which do not seem to have been studied much, and which may or may not be forgeries.  Here is one:

Achaemenid Golden Codex, dating to between 550 BC - 330 BC (click to enlarge)

Achaemenid Golden Codex

In October 2005, police in Tehran, Iran, recovered several artifacts that had been sold to smugglers by a farmer who had found them while plowing a field.  One of these artifacts was a book made of eight plates of gold, and bound with four rings on one side.

The codex is inscribed with cuneiform script, which was a commonly used in the ancient Near East.  It is believed to be from the Achaemenid period, because of its codex format, which would date it to sometime between 550 BC and 330 BC.  Again, dated to shortly after the time period of Lehi and his family, and in the Middle East.

The current whereabouts of this artifact are unknown to me and those I’ve asked.  Instead of continuing to chase the Jordan Lead Codices down a dead-end road, it might be more productive for the media to help find this codex, and determine its authenticity and meaning.

More Information:

• John A. Tvedtnes, “Achaemenid Gold Book,” Book of Mormon Research.
• “An Achaemenid Golden Codex Recovered from Smugglers,” 11 October 2005, The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)

Conclusion

As you can see, there are many examples of modern day archeological discoveries of ancient writing on metal plates, and I only mention a few.  These were unknown in Joseph Smith’s time, yet many attest to the fact that writing on metal plates was a practice during Lehi’s day in and around Jerusalem.

Authentic Ancient Metal Plates

I’m usually one who likes to believe. Joseph Smith once taught, “I never hear of a man being damned for believing too much; but they are damned for unbelief.” But the facts seem to be stacking up against this one.

Here’s the current state of things.

Details favoring authenticity:

• Initial metallurgic research on the plates shows they “look” about 2,000 years old, based on their type of corrosion, which they say “would be impossible to achieve artificially.”
• Carbon dating on a piece of leather found with the plates, with the image of a crocodile on it, had results indicating its about 2,000 years old.
• Scholars who have examined them are cautious but interested, believing they could be early Christian writings – Dr. Margaret Barker and Professor Philip R. Davies.
• Jordan’s Department of Antiquities, and its director Ziad al-Saad, has expressed great interest in the plates, saying they could date from early Christianity. The Jordanian government is working to repatriate them.
• The plates contain a number of true ancient symbols, including menorah, palm trees (lulav), eight-pointed stars, archaic Hebrew characters, etc.

Details favoring forgery:

• Initial metallurgic research is not based on the composition of the metal, but appearances. Who did this metallurgic research?
• Who did the carbon dating on the piece of leather found with the plates?
• Conflicting reports on their source – were they founded by a Jordanian Bedouin between 2005-2007, or are they an Israeli’s family possession over 100 years old? (Another alternate history has also emerged placing their origin in Alexandria and being found in northern Egypt.)
• The Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) has dismissed the discovery as forgeries. They “absolutely doubted their authenticity. The IAA has said they are a “mixture of incompatible periods and styles without any connection or logic. Such forged motifs can be found in their thousands in the antiquities markets of Jordan and elsewhere in the Middle East.”
• Initial reports stated there were twenty codices in the collection. Later reports state there are up to seventy.
• Most ancient plates with writing that have been formerly discovered were engraved with their inscriptions into the metal. I’m unaware of any that were cast with metal in molds, such as this one, resulting in raised figures.
• Most ancient plates that have been found were made of copper, gold, or bronze, not lead.
• There were similar plates found in the 19th century that were also cast in lead with a mixed unknown language inscribed on them, known as the Sinaia Lead Plates. These are considered by archeologists today to be modern forgeries.
• Another discovery of lead plates called the Lead Books of Sacromonte were writings on circular plates, bound with lead wire, and are now considered by experts to be 16th century forgeries. They were also a mix of languages, and cryptic texts.
• David Elkington, the archeologist that is spearheading the recovery effort, is not widely known among archeologists, and has published a questionable, almost new-age type, book called In the Name of the Gods.
• David Elkington already has a lengthy 320 page book and documentary film in the works about the Jordan plates discovery. The websites say the book was published in May, 2010. Most significant discoveries are only followed years later by detailed books and documentaries.
• In an interview with David Elkington, he mentions that the eight-pointed stars found on the plates are surely Messianic signs, and representative of the star of Bethlehem, neither of which is really true. Such a star can represent a god, but is not necessarily Messianic.
• An expert in ancient inscriptions, Professor Andre Lemaire, said the writing he saw on the codices didn’t make sense, and it was “a question apparently of sophisticated fakes”.
• Much of what is being said about the dating of the plates is that they are first century AD. Multiple things seem to suggest a later 3rd or 4th century date however, including the appearance of a cross (only began to be used as a symbol by Christians centuries after the crucifixion), and a menorah (was typically forbidden to be represented by Jews until Late Antiquity).
• Detailed high resolution photos of the plates have not been released publicly for expert scrutiny.
• Other recent communications have shown that David Elkington may be in possession of other certain forgeries, claimed to be part of the same collection.

Conclusion

All-in-all these things lead me (no pun intended), and others, to believe that the plates are probably a very elaborate and careful forgery. Whether they are a modern forgery or an ancient forgery is yet to be seen. If they are an ancient forgery, they may still yield interesting insights into ancient times.

As Dr. Margaret Barker initially said of the findings:

If they are a forgery, what are they are forgery of? Most fakes are drawn from existing material, but there is nothing like this that I have seen.

I wouldn’t be surprised if someone let loose the joke on us all tomorrow.  Surely archeologists have April Fools pranks too.  If that’s it, this one certainly takes the cake!

UPDATE: The Deseret News has published an article detailing the weaknesses of the discovery also.

Jordanian Lead Plates: Authentic or Forgery?

One of the codices in the collection of metal plates discovered in Jordan

UPDATE: See the latest updates about this discovery at Jordanian Lead Plates: Authentic or Forgery?
–
A few days ago we wrote about an interesting discovery of ancient sealed metal plates that were found within the last few years in Jordan, and are starting to create a stir among archeologists. The BBC News religious affairs correspondent Robert Pigott just published more interesting details, and photos, of the plates, in a report entitled “Jordan battles to regain ‘priceless’ Christian relics“. The BBC also includes a set of 7 more detailed photos here.

Some additional details include:  

• There are 70 or so “books” or codices in this collection, each between 5-15 leaves made from lead, and bound with lead rings.
• The leaves are about the size of a credit card.
• Some experts and suggesting the books may have been made by early Christians in the years just following the crucifixion.
• There is uncertainty whether they are of Jewish or Christian origin, but several say there is evidence of Christian origin in the signs and symbols used in the books.
• Some purported symbols include a cross, a tomb, and the city of Jerusalem.  A menorah is also seen as representing the holy of holies of the temple in Jerusalem, and the presence of God.
• One of the only lines of texts yet to be translated from the books says “I shall walk uprightly,” a line from the Book of Revelation? (I’m unsure what reference they are referring to).  It’s been shown in the past that such a line is a kind of “worthiness” requirement for those who would ascend to the temple in ancient times (from Psalms 15).

Dr. Margaret Barker adds more commentary of what appears to be Christian provenance:

“We do know that on two occasions groups of refugees from the troubles in Jerusalem fled east, they crossed the Jordan near Jericho and then they fled east to very approximately where these books were said to have been found…

“[Another] one of the things that is most likely pointing towards a Christian provenance, is that these are not scrolls but books. The Christians were particularly associated with writing in a book form rather than scroll form, and sealed books in particular as part of the secret tradition of early Christianity.”

Again, extensive investigation must still be done by a host of experts before a solid understanding of the authenticity and meaning can be made from this discovery.  But as the director of Jordan’s department of antiquities, Ziad al-Saad, notes, it could be “the most important discovery in the history of archaeology.”

More Details about Ancient Metal Plates from the BBC

UPDATE: See the latest updates about this discovery at Jordanian Lead Plates: Authentic or Forgery?
–
David Larsen at HeavenlyAscents.com has pointed out an interesting recent discovery (see his posts here and here).  A collection of dozens of books made from metal plates have been found in Jordan that initial tests show date from the first century AD.

Now this certainly sounds exciting, particularly to the Latter-day Saints. As we know, Joseph Smith said that he received and translated ancient sealed gold plates, in what became The Book of Mormon.

This find is interesting for a number of reasons:

• The books are written on metal plates (lead and copper)
• They are bound by rings on one side (also known as codices)
• Many of the books are “sealed” on all sides
• They appear to be from the first century AD, and may be the earliest Christian documents ever found
• Scholars have noted that, if authentic, this could be bigger than the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls
• They appear to be written in an archaic Hebrew script
• Some appears to be written in code
• The sealed nature, and code appearance of the text, suggests that these may contain “secret teachings,” perhaps even “Temple based documentation”
• A number of recognizable symbols appear, including the menorah (which can be seen in the photos above), branches, fruits, trees, and of the Feast of Tabernacles (Sukkot), associated with the enthronement rituals of ancient Davidic kings, and with the coming of the Messiah

Dr. Margaret Barker commented on the discovery:

“The Book of Revelation tells of a sealed book that was opened only by the Messiah. Other texts from the period tell of sealed books of wisdom and of a secret tradition passed on by Jesus to his closest disciples. That is the context for this discovery. So if they are forgeries, what are they forgeries of?"

Extensive investigation must still be done to verify the authenticity of these plates and their meaning.  If they are genuine, this could be a huge discovery. (See an update of this discovery from the BBC News).

See below for the full press release issued today about the find:
Sealed

Ancient Sealed Metal Plates with Perhaps Secret Temple Texts discovered in Middle East?

Feel free to share with us your thoughts in the comments below.

Temple Video Series: Part 2a – Three Degrees of Glory (Bronze Laver)

Ancient Israelite Temples Timeline (1300 BC--AD 100). Click on image for hi-res version.

Ancient Israelite Temples Timeline (1300 BC—AD 100) by Bryce Haymond is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 United States License. That means you can use this graphic however you please, as long as you attribute the original work to me and this website, and any derivatives must be licensed the same. See the Creative Commons link above for more details.

I am a visual learner in many ways, so sometimes I like to put things together visually so I can get a better grasp of them, and understand them more thoroughly.  The history of the ancient Israelite temples is one of those things that I wanted to learn better, so I created this timeline to help me visualize it.

The timeline shows the basic history of the ancient Israelite temples from the Tabernacle of Moses, through Solomon’s Temple (First Temple Period), the Babylonian Exile, and Zerubbabel’s and Herod’s Temples (Second Temple Period).  This spans about 1400 years.  Major temple structures are noted, as well as lesser known Israelite temples.  Major events which affected temple worship are marked and labeled, as well as other important dates.

The information on the timeline is sourced primarily from William Hamblin and David Seely’s excellent 2007 book, Solomon’s Temple: Myth and History (pages 9-49, 210).  Other information was found at various sources online.

I’m sure there are many details I’ve left out, and probably some errors.  If there are items that you think should be included (such as additional Israelite temples), please let me know.  If there are errors, please tell me those as well.  Just leave notes in the comments, and I will continually update the timeline here as I receive feedback.  Thanks!

Update (10/31/2009): I’ve updated the timeline. I’ve added some temples in the New World, including the temple in the city of Nephi, Zarahemla, and Bountiful. I’ve also added several more Old World temples including Arad, Meggido, Lachish, Beersheba, Gilgal, Ebal, Shechem, Shiloh, Kirjath-jearim, and Gibeon. Many of the dates are approximated. There are still more to add, as soon as I find more details.

Update (11/2/2009): I’ve decided to make this strictly an Old World temples timeline, so I’ve removed the few references to temples in the New World. I may make a separate timeline which compiles what we know of temples in the Book of Mormon. I’ve added some details about the ruling parties in Judea between 515 BC and AD 100. I’ve also added a visual reconstruction of what the Elephantine Temple may have looked like. Other small details have also been added.

Ancient Israelite Temples Timeline (1300 BC—AD 100)

San Joaquin Delta College Hellenic Dancers doing the Greek Syrtos dance at the school's new campus dedication in 1977. They wear the traditional Greek folk dance costume. A musician is playing a Thracian gaida in the center of the circle, leading the dance. Used with permission.

When I originally wrote my paper on “The Genesis of the Round Dance,” I included a short section on the ancient Greek dance forms:

The ancient choruses, dances, and songs of the dithyramb of Greece displayed the familiar pattern of a dignified, circular dance around the altar of Dionysus in the theater's orchestra. In fact, the term orchestra originally meant the circular dancing place of the theater. In addition, the terms carole and chorus, also originally Greek, meant a sacred ring dance, men and women holding each others hands [other related English words are chorale, choir, and choreography]. LDS scholar, Dr. Hugh Nibley, reminds us that the creation was often acted out in these Greek dance dramas:

The Greek play has a chorus. Well what does chorus mean? It's a ring dance; it's a circle. Same as our word curve; Latin: curvus; going around. The chorus sings, and the chorus of the muses sings the poiema, the creation song . . . When they sing together, it's the poiema, the song of the creation. It's a glorious thing. It's a round dance like the Egyptian maypole.

Nibley takes it one step further to explain that all the arts originated from the ancient temple dramas. “So poetry, music, and dance,” he tells us, “go out to the world from the temple-called by the Greeks the Mouseion, the shrine of the Muses.” Again he states that, “All the arts and sciences began at the temple. Dance, music, architecture, sculpture, drama, and so forth-they all go back to the temple.” Kraus supports this claim of a ritualistic connection between the arts when he informs us that Native American ceremonies and sacred dances are “part of an elaborate drama which embraces all the arts.”

The more one learns about the arts, the more one is convinced of Nibley’s stunning summation.

I want to expand a bit more on the traditional Greek dance forms, and share some more interesting details I’ve learned about these ancient practices that still are continued today. 

Form

One of the most ancient literary references to dance in the Greek tradition is found in Homer’s The Iliad.  In book 18, the circular Shield of Achilles is described, with dancing youths making up one of the rings:

Hereon there danced youths and maidens whom all would woo, with their hands on one another’s wrists. The maidens wore robes of light linen, and the youths well woven shirts that were slightly oiled. The girls were crowned with garlands, while the young men had daggers of gold that hung by silver baldrics; sometimes they would dance deftly in a ring with merry twinkling feet, as it were a potter sitting at his work and making trial of his wheel to see whether it will run, and sometimes they would go all in line with one another, and much people was gathered joyously about the green. There was a bard also to sing to them and play his lyre, while two tumblers went about performing in the midst of them when the man struck up with his tune.

This same dance form has lived on in Greek literature, art, and tradition for centuries, changing little along the way.  There is a multitude of artifacts that represent the Greek dance, which tells us some of the story of how it was danced anciently.  The Greeks claim the form is the same today.  John Pappas of GreekFolkMusicandDance.com informs us:

Invariably, the dancers are in a circle or line, often with a musician or musicians in the center. The dancers are joined with the same common handholds still used in our Greek folk dances today. These include the shoulder hold, the chain hold, and the most common joining of hands (shoulder height with elbows down, like a ‘W’).

The Greeks don’t believe they invented this dance, but that it came from a divine source:

Ancient Greeks believed that dancing was invented by the Gods and therefore they had associated it with their religious and worshiping ceremonies. They believed that the Gods offered this gift to some select mortals only, who in turn taught dancing to their fellow-men.

Not only did the Gods reveal the dance, but it was an evolution of something else:

The ancient Greeks believed that dancing was a gift from the gods, and the art of the dance evolved from ritualized movements used in religious ceremonies.

These dances also included singing, which was antiphonal, meaning that a leader sang a statement, and another group responded or repeated the statement, which is where our modern verse and chorus originated.  Athan Karras writes:

Today the folk songs of the countryside still reflect antiphonal singing in their dances, especially in processional dances, when a leader will sing a verse, which the chorus repeats. The early church music also used chanters answering antiphonally with one another, evolving into today's choir. It is believed that in the earliest temples, the congregation danced and sang the liturgy. From this evolved the chorus leader and later, the priest. These early choruses or, Omadikoi Horoi, evolved by having the closed circle break open to allow for a leader. In her book on the ancient Greek dance, Lillian Lawler speaks about the circle, a sense of incorporating giving, receiving and excluding: “Circle dances and especially those with clasped hands have a mystical significance among ancient people, often performed around an altar, tree or a pillar or some sacred object, or even a musician. . . At times the circle dance seems to have been an invocation dance, as can be seen in ancient Minoan coins, or frescoes in the Minos palace in Knossos.”

One of the most well-known of the ritualistic uses of the dance is in the Greek Orthodox wedding ceremony.  First, the couple are crowned with flowered crowns, then the priest joins their right hands together, and later the bride, groom, and priest perform a dance procession around the altar, circling precisely three times.

There are many other uses of the Greek dances, used on occasions of “rites of passage” in life.

Greek dancing in Foustanelles costume (men) and Florina costume (ladies). 1970s. Used with permission.

Costume

"Women's Festive Costume... made of a variety of materials... sleeveless cotton tunic with a multi-colored embroidered hem, a silk jabot-trachilia, pure silk sleeves with lace... white woolen coat... The headgear with coins and ornaments... is covered with a white silk shawl... The apron is of velvet with floral embroidery." (http://www.greekfolkdancers.com/costumes.htm)

The Greek folk dance costume has a direct relationship to the liturgical garments of the Greek Orthodox Church:

Some of the characteristics of Greek folk costumes can be traced back to elements in ancient Hellenic and Byzantine costumes. In fact, many of the elements of the liturgical clothing worn today by the Greek Orthodox priests are related to the modern Greek folk costumes and have their origin in the clothing of the Byzantine Empire.

Such details make a study of the Greek folk dance costume even more intriguing.

While the costumes from various locations in Greece all differ significantly in ornamental design and individual styles, all the costumes are made with similar parts and construction.  I will focus particularly on the women’s costume.  The basic parts of this costume generally are:

• a long linen or cotton chemise or basic undergarment (Poukamiso)
• a sleeveless wool vest (Segouni)
• an apron (Bodia)
• a sash or girdle (Zonari)
• a scarf or head covering (Mandili)
• shoes or foot coverings (Tsarouhia)
• decorative jewelry

Many of these elements can be seen in the photographs of the Greek dancers above, and at the beginning of the article.  More examples of this costume and textiles can be seen at GreekFolkMusicandDance.com, GreekFolkDancers.com, and the Museum of Greek Folk Art.

"Greek Apron, 19th century Karagouna, Thessaly Athens, Museum of Greek Folk Art, Inv. No. 6633. The Karagounides were indigenous Greek inhabitants of the Thessaly plain. This particular apron is trapezoidal... Its surface is decorated all over with motifs including honeysuckle, spirals, arabesques and rosettes, and would appear to be a bridal apron judging from the lavish ornamentation." (Attika Guide of Museum of Greek Folk Art)

One of the more interesting accessories worn by the Greek dancers, and in daily wear, was and is an apron (called in Greek a podia or bodia).  This is one of the most ornamented and decorated articles of clothing worn by the Greeks and also one of the most important.

Their trapezoidal aprons of black wool were of great social significance… A woman would make about twenty-five for her dowry, each to be worn on a specific occasion.

This apron was not for practical use, to protect clothing underneath as is common in modern Western culture, but rather it stood as a symbol:

The purpose of the ubiquitous apron of most European peasant costume, and particularly that of eastern Europe, is symbolically protective and not practical.  Varying in style with each village but normally heavily embroidered, intricately pleated or finely woven in striped patterning, it covered a dress or petticoat that almost always was deliberately left plain where the apron would be worn.  It is the antithesis of an apron worn to protect precious clothing.  Instead it protects the body.

One of the primary associations of the apron was with marriage, a significant rite of passage:

This was the moment at which the bride, as well as taking a new hairstyle and headdress, changed the type of apron she had worn as a young girl to another that declared her status as a married woman… Women of the nomadic Sarakatsani, now living mainly in Greece, embroidered twenty to forty aprons (panoules) during their youth, each with different symbolism – such as the cross, the serpent, or the moon – that showed the woman’s social status or was thought suitable for various occasions and moods.  She would then choose each day the appropriate one to wear.

The designs embroidered on the aprons have “religious and magical significance”.

The apron and head scarf were important items in a girl’s dowry.  Her distinguishing traits of movement from girlhood to marriage did not derive so much from utility but as objects for protection and strengthening.  The apron (podia), is traditionally thrown over the stomach of Thracian women in labour to facilitate birth.

The apron – the podia – of all Greek costume was imbued with magical properties.

As can be seen in the links given above, the embroidery’s design on the Greek aprons is usually based on stylized vegetation, viz floral motifs, vines, leaves, etc.  The reason for this is because these designs usually are a depiction of the Tree of Life.

When embroidered, both everyday and festive aprons featured mainly flower designs or symbols of fertility such as the pomegranate.

The tree of life is one of the most common motifs in embroidery almost everywhere… almost every vaguely foliate shape and every pot of flowers is deemed to represent the tree of life.  Most in fact do. 

Sheila Paine describes why the Tree of Life is so universal in embroidery:

The tree is one of the most potent of symbols.  Its roots delve into the underworld, its trunk links the earth to the heavens – it transcends all three spheres.  Its life-cycle unfurls before our eyes in each season of the year, the symbolism of birth, maturity, death and rebirth embodied in leaf, bud and fruit.  Its fruitfulness is matched by the fruitfulness of woman and even sap and milk were equated by primitive man.

Many times the symbol of the Tree of Life is stylized:

It may be a simple linear pattern intended to signify a particular tree, such as a palm, or more often to convey the general concept of growth and fertility.  When the tree of life is depicted as an actual tree, it is stylized to convey its mythological significance.  Consequently foliate patterns or simple branched devices signify the tree of life, rather than a realistic tree with trunk and leafy branches.

Sampler, England, 1826. The tree of knowledge is a widely used motif in many English embroideries of the 19th century. (Embroidered Textiles, Sheila Paine.) Click for larger view.

The Tree of Knowledge, which bore the forbidden fruit, is also depicted on a number of embroideries:

The birth, life, death and regrowth of the tree symbolized in its fertility also the concept of immortality, an inestimable treasure.  In ancient Babylon such treasure was protected by a serpent and the concept of two trees, the one of immortality attained through the heavily guarded one of wisdom, formed part of mythological belief.  In biblical terms this is the tree of knowledge with the serpent that deprived Adam and Eve of paradise, and that became the central motif of a great number of nineteenth-century English samplers [a sampler is a piece of embroidery produced as a demonstration or test of skill in needlework].

Some scholars believe that the fig leaves that Adam and Eve used to make their aprons in fact came from the same tree that they had just eaten the forbidden fruit from, i.e. the Tree of Knowledge in the Garden of Eden (Gen. 3:6-7).

Conclusion

Studying the traditional Greek folk dances reveals that they are very rich in history and culture, and date back anciently to religious beliefs and practices, particularly the ring dance around the altar.  The suggestion that these traditions seem to have changed little since ancient times gives us a glimpse of how things might have been millenia ago.

Clearly, there is much more can be learned from a study of this subject.  Do you have any additional insights about the Greek folk dances?  Please share with us in the comments.

The Traditional Greek Folk Dances and their Ancient Roots

Book Cover

Some of you may remember I wrote about The Apotheosis of Washington painting in the U.S. Capitol.  A friend just informed me that someone has published an ebook that investigates the U.S. Capitol as a type of temple, including this painting, and many other interesting details.  It is called Freedom’s Gate: The Lost Symbols in the U.S. Capitol, by William Henry and Dr. Mark Gray.

Here are some of his main points:

• The Dome of the U.S. Capitol is a mirror image of the Vatican Dome and was thought of as a recreation of Solomon's Temple by its builders.
• The art of the interior corridors of the Capitol mirrors Vatican art.
• Higher Wisdom flows through the Capitol's spiritual imagery and artwork.
• The bell-shaped Capitol Dome is a stupa that creates a vortex or field of energy that extends into the world.
• The Freemasons who built the Capitol viewed it as a 'beehive' buzzing with energy.
• Literally, we can alter this energy field by visiting the Capitol Dome and praying or meditating inside. This will raise the frequency of the Dome and the Capitol, helping to clear out negative or harmful energies.
• This is the great secret of the Founding Fathers. They left us a bell to ring in times of distress. Let Freedom's Ring!

Reading up about the author, William Henry, shows he believes in some interesting New-Age metaphysics, with stargates and wormholes among other things.  I’m not so sure about all of that, but this book might still include some interesting insights about the U.S. Capitol being a type of temple to the Founding Fathers.  Thanks Jennifer!

Has anyone read this book?  What are your thoughts about it?  Please share your impressions in the comments.

Freedom’s Gate: U.S. Capitol as a Temple

Touching the Hem of Jesus

This is TempleStudy.com’s first guest blog post.  It is by Jennifer O., a reader here, and a student of the gospel.  She sent me the following short article she wrote about the talith, and I thought it had some great thoughts to share with all of you. -Bryce

The Jews have a religious symbol called a talith (tallit), or a prayer shawl, that covers them when they pray. They claim that it envelops them both physically and spiritually, in sorrow and joy, in celebration and prayer. Today, this shawl is worn at all of the major feasts and festivals, but in Biblical times, it was worn constantly by the men while outside of their home. Even Israel's flag was inspired by this shawl, adding only David's shield to create their national flag.

The word talith contains two Hebrew words: tal = tent and ith = little.

In other words, it was a “little tent.” In the days of Moses, a large tent was set up according to the Lord's command, a Tabernacle, where the Israelites could worship and offer sacrifice. This Tabernacle served as a pattern for individual and familial worship to the tribes. Each man was able to create his own sacred space where he could commune with God, free from the interruptions of the day. By taking the ends of the talith and pulling it over his head, a “little tent” was formed where he could sing praises to the Lord, meditate, and call upon the Lord in fervent prayer. In essence, the talith became his own personal sanctuary – a sacred grove.

This may provide additional insight into the scripture “And my father dwelt in a tent” (1 Nephi 2:15). While in the desert Lehi certainly resided in a physical tent dwelling as was the custom, but could it also be a reference to Lehi creating a sacred sanctuary in the desert where he could commune with God and seek His presence?

In addition to a sanctuary, during Jewish wedding celebrations the talith may serve as a canopy (chupah) for the bride and groom. Four poles hold up this tent, which represents both a home and the protection of God, who is above all, throughout their marriage covenant. The groom may also place the shawl over the bride's head as a symbol of taking her under his care. As the talith is a protective covering, it represents prayer, communion with God, and the temple, and we can see the importance of these throughout marriage and family life. We can also see symbolism of the marriage of the Lord to his bride, the church.

Although the shawl itself was of importance and made with quality, it became special because of the fringes (tzitzit) on the four corners which served as a visual reminder to follow the commandments and seek righteousness (Numbers 15:39). These tassels also stated the status, rank, and importance of the wearer, which explains why Jesus disapproved of the enlarged fringes used to magnify one's own importance and status (Matthew 23:5).

The hem of the garment often had the genealogy of ancestors written upon it. Removing the hem or fringe was equivalent of losing one's status and position, such as the removal of a woman's meant a divorce. When David removed the hem of Saul's garment, it was an indication of Saul's loss of status and power (1 Samuel 24:4). It is this same piece that some believe was the mantle given to Elisha by Elijah (2 Kings 2). And we cannot forget the miracle of healing that occurred when the inflicted woman touched the hem (tassel) of the Savior's garment (Luke 8:43-44, Matthew 9:20).

“But unto you that fear my name shall the Son of righteousness arise with healing in his wings” (Malachi 4:2). The corners of the prayer shawl are often called “wings.” This provides insight into Psalm 91 which speaks of abiding “under the shadow of the Almighty” and “under His wings” (v1, 4).

Realizing the spiritual and physical natures of the talith, we can see additional applications for Isaiah 54:2: “Enlarge the place of thy tent, and let them stretch forth the curtains of thine habitations: spare not, lengthen thy cords, and strengthen thy stakes.”

The places of our tents, when thought of as sacred and holy space, can comprise more than just the stakes that are referenced, as commonly interpreted. When we enlarge the place of our tents, we must start within us individually and expand outward. Our tents are found within and around us as we strive to create a holy, sacred place where we may commune with the Lord and feel His Spirit.

As we enlarge the boundaries, our homes become our tents and protection from the world. They have the potential to serve as a holy place, a temple even, where the Lord's spirit may dwell. The LDS Bible Dictionary entry on “Temples” notes that “Only the home can compare with the temple in sacredness.”

“Stretching forth” even further, we have an opportunity to make our wards and stakes more holy, securing it more firmly and “strengthening thy stakes.”

Ultimately, through mastery and discipline in our personal, family, and community settings, we arrive at the largest and most holy tent of all – the temple and literal home of our Savior and Lord, Jesus Christ. It is this great privilege to come as His guest, to become His bride, in this most sacred place, that we must "spare not" and make every effort to receive and enjoy, for its benefits are for eternity.

Talith, Tents, and Temples