Ancient Israelite temple ceremonial clothing worn in the Mosaic Tabernacle, and succeeding Israelite temples of Solomon, Herod, et al.

I’m very pleased to welcome another guest post by Matthew B. Brown.  Some of his writings, particularly his book The Gate of Heaven, are what inspired me to study the temple more in depth.  He offers a wealth of insight and learning for the Latter-day Saints. ~Bryce

Matthew B. Brown holds a degree in history from Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah. He is the author of ten books and has published articles with the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship at BYU (aka FARMS). Matthew has served as a volunteer researcher, editor, and respondent for The Foundation for Apologetic Information and Research (FAIR) and has spoken at several of their annual conferences. He is one of the directors of the upcoming EXPOUND symposium on May 14, 2011, and will also be a presenter (expoundlds.com).

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It is publicly acknowledged that Latter-day Saints who participate in the central temple rites of their faith dress in several layers of ceremonial clothing, consisting of a "white undergarment" (which is worn as part of everyday life) and "other priestly robes" (which are only worn during times of temple service).¹ The undergarment is properly referred to as the "garment of the holy priesthood"² and the robes are likewise referred to as the "robes of the holy priesthood."³ A proclamation written on 6 April 1845 by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles in Nauvoo, Illinois clarified that these are the "garments and royal robes of the high priesthood."⁴ The garment bears "several simple marks of orientation toward the gospel principles of obedience, truth, life and discipleship in Christ."⁵ The First Presidency of the LDS Church stated in a 1988 administrative letter that one of the functions of the garment is to serve as "a reminder of the sacred covenants [which temple patrons] have made with the Lord" and another is to serve as "a protection against temptation and evil." Yet, these Church leaders emphasize that such protection is conditional in nature.⁶ The temple garment is bestowed by an officiator prior to the commencement of the main temple ceremonies (in connection with washing and anointing rituals⁷) and is to be worn for the remainder of the recipient's mortal life.⁸ A proclamation circulated by President Joseph F. Smith on 28 June 1906 stated that "the pattern of endowment garments was revealed from heaven."⁹

The priests of ancient Israel were invested (see Lev. 8:7) with layers of "holy," white linen clothing (some of which included other colors) in order to qualify them for service in the tabernacle precincts (Ex. 28:2, 4, 39-40). It is known that the Israelite kings donned similar vestments (see 1 Chron. 15:27). This clothing was bestowed in connection with purification by water and anointing with perfumed oil (see Ex. 40:12-13). All of the priests were commanded by the Lord to wear the white undergarment while serving within temple space so that they would be protected from lethal harm (see Ex. 28:42-43) and the high priest was instructed to put on an additional piece of clothing for the very same reason (see Ex. 28:31-35). The wearing of the priestly undergarment was "a statute forever" for temple ministrants (Ex. 28:42-43). All of the Israelites--whether priestly or not--were required to have four prominent markings upon their clothing in order to remind them to be a "holy" people: to seek not after their own eyes and hearts but to stay within the limits established by the Lord's commandments (Num. 15:38-40; Deut. 22:12). In one respect, these symbols were meant to help the wearer "to bridle the passions."¹⁰ A prominent scholar of biblical texts has taught that the marks on the ancient Israelite garments were constructed in such a way so as to make each one of them "a symbol of both priesthood and royalty, thereby epitomizing the divine imperative that Israel become 'a kingdom of priests and a holy nation.'"¹¹

In the New Testament book of Revelation the Lord Jesus Christ promises that His disciples who overcome will be "clothed in white raiment" (Rev. 3:5). In this same biblical volume it is specified that "white raiment" is given to people in the heavenly realm who hold the status of "kings and priests" (Rev. 4:4; Rev. 5:8-10). The apostle John says at the beginning of his Apocalypse that the mortal disciples of the Savior achieved an identical status--"kings and priests" (Rev. 1:6)--implying that sometime previously they had been invested with the ritual clothing connected with those two offices.

From all of the information that has been presented in this short paper's main text and endnotes it is possible to summarize the points of similarity between the temple clothing of the Latter-day Saints and that of the Covenant People of the Bible.

• Pattern revealed by God
• Bestowed in God's temple
• Bestowed during initiation rituals
• Bestowed by an authority figure
• Associated with priesthood
• Associated with royalty
• Associated with Primeval Man
• Connected with holiness
• White in color
• Constructed of linen fabric
• Worn on a perpetual basis
• Associated with protection
• Consisting of multiple layers
• Markings displayed upon it
• Markings serve a reminding function
• Markings associated with specific principles

There is much more that could be said with regard to the connection between these two sets of sacred vestments but this list should suffice to demonstrate that what Joseph Smith gave to the Latter-day Saints in 1842 has clear correspondences with ancient patterns which are preserved in the Old and New Testaments. As noted in D&C 124, the Lord restored through His Prophet "that which was lost" (D&C 124:28)--things pertaining to the tabernacle constructed by Moses and the temple built by Solomon (see D&C 124:37-38).

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NOTES

1. Daniel H. Ludlow, ed., Encyclopedia of Mormonism (New York: Macmillan, 1992), 2:534.

2. Ensign, August 1997, 20. On 8 August 1966 Assistant to the Twelve Theodore M. Burton made the following remarks: "Adam was given a garment of the Holy Priesthood as a sign of [an] endowment of power which he received from God [see Gen. 3:21]. Eve, his wife . . . . also was clothed in a garment of power" (BYU Speeches of the Year [Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press], 4). One Jewish midrashim calls Adam's God-given clothing "the garments of the high priesthood" and a commentator on this and related documents points out that "while no single text explicitly says so, the tradition seems to have been that the holy garment [of Adam] went from Jacob to Joseph, to the Israelites who left Egypt, and eventually to the priests of the tribe of Levi" (The Harvard Theological Review, vol. 90, no. 2, April 1997, 172).

3. Ensign, November 1979, 43.

4. James R. Clark., comp., Messages of the First Presidency (Salty Lake City: Bookcraft, 1965), 1:260. In this official text the vestments are described as being "fine linen . . . glorious and beautiful," which is directly parallel to Exodus 28 verses 2 and 39 (Ex. 28:2, 39) where the temple clothing of ancient Israel is said to be made of "fine linen" and is designed to provide the wearer with "glory and . . . beauty." A connection between Hebrew and Mormon sanctuary raiment is thus unmistakable.

5. Ludlow, ed., Encyclopedia of Mormonism, 2:534.

6. First Presidency Letter, 10 October 1988, cited in Ensign, August 1997, 22. "The blessings that are related to this sacred privilege [of wearing the temple garment] depend on your worthiness and your faithfulness in keeping temple covenants. . . . When you wear it properly, [the garment] provides protection against temptation and evil" (First Presidency, True to the Faith: A Gospel Reference [Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, 2004], 173). Elder Robert D. Hales: "In the temple . . . sacred covenants are made. These covenants, together with the wearing of sacred temple garments, strengthen and protect the endowed person against the powers of the adversary" (Ensign, November 1995, 34).

7. Ensign, October 2007, 20. "A commemorative garment is given with [the] ordinances" of washing and anointing (Ludlow, ed., Encyclopedia of Mormonism, 4:1444).

8. First Presidency, True to the Faith, 173.

9. Clark, comp., Messages of the First Presidency, 5:110.

10. Jacob Blumenthal and Janet L. Liss, eds., Etz-Hayim: Study Companion (New York: The Rabbinical Assembly, 2005), 268. There is at least one Jewish, Midrashic tradition--in tractate Bavli-Menachot 43a--stating that the temple priests and Levites were obligated to wear these marks on their garments as well as all the other Israelites, including women (see Judith Z. Abrams, Torah and Company [Teaneck, NJ: Ben Yehuda Press, 2006], 74).

11. Blumenthal and Liss, eds., Etz-Hayim: Study Companion, 268-70.

Sanctuary Vesture: A Brief Overview and Comparison

Pope Benedict XVI wearing the gremiale, an apron-like vestment

The gremiale, also called gremial, is an apron-like vestment worn by the bishop as part of the Catholic Mass or other sacred orders.  The Catholic Encyclopedia describes the current understanding of this vestment in this way:

A square or oblong cloth which the bishop, according to the “Cæremoniale” and “Pontificale”, should wear over his lap, when seated on the throne during the singing of the Kyrie, Gloria, and Credo by the choir, during the distribution of blessed candles, palms or ashes, and also during the anointments in connection with Holy orders. The gremiale is never used during pontifical Vespers. The primary object of the gremiale is to prevent the soiling of the other vestments, especially the chasuble. The gremiale used during the pontifical Mass is made of silk. It should be decorated by a cross in the centre, and trimmed with silk embroidery. Its colour must correspond with the colour of the chasuble. The gremiales used at other functions are made of linen, to facilitate their cleansing in case they be soiled. Little is known of its history; apparently its origin dates back to the later Middle Ages. The Roman Ordo of Gaetano Stefaneschi (c. 1311) mention it first (n. 48); soon after it is mentioned in the statutes of Grandison of Exeter (England) as early as 1339, In earlier times it was used not only any bishop but also by priests. It is not blessed and has no symbolical meaning.

This is an intriguing vestment, particularly since “little is known of its history.”  So I did some research and found a bit more about it. 

New Catholic Dictionary illustration of a gremiale, noting the unique embroidery

First, this vestment is referred to explicitly as an “apron” in many references.  The New Catholic Dictionary describes it:

A silken apron, trimmed with silk embroidery, of the color of the day laid upon the bishop’s lap when he sits during a pontifical Mass. A linen gremial is used when conferring sacred orders.

Or:

Small golden laced, ornamented apron used when seated or conferring Holy Orders.

A glossary of liturgical and ecclesiastical terms, By Frederick George Lee

The JM Latin-English Dictionary defines the term:

apron/lap cloth for bishop at Mass/pontifical functions

In Latin, the word gremiale literally means apron, derived from the Latin word gremium for lap, bosom, or womb.  It is also called a lap cloth.  Because of its relative word germe, it also happens to be the word used for firewood, or more generally for trees or shrubs.

The Century Dictionary notes that it is used by the bishop during mass or ordination “to protect his vestments from the consecrated oil”.  Or as another source puts it, “used in ordination to protect the sacred vestments from any drops of unction that might fall in the act of anointing candidates for the priesthood”.  It also seems that the gremiale is used to protect the vestments from being soiled from the sweat of the hands while sitting.

Most sources note how the gremiale is of different colors, and is usually highly decorated, embroidered with gold and silver thread.  In most of the examples I found, this is true.  Here are three:

Gremiale, manifattura emiliana, sec. XVII; velluto ricamato. San Giovanni in Persiceto (Bologna).

Grémial, 1921, cathédrale, Amiens (Somme).

Gremial, Portugal (?), século XVIII; gorgorão de seda vermelha bordado a ouro e sedas policromas. Patriarcado de Lisboa.

The gremial was originally made out of linen, but over time was gradually replaced with silk, or even the same material as the rest of the liturgical vestments.  Some have compared the gremiale to the towel girded by Christ as he washed the feet of the twelve apostles; indeed, it is still used in such feet washing ceremonies.  Although now primarily used by the bishop, the gremiale was originally used by all degrees of priesthood, including the prelate, priest, deacon and sub-deacon to cover the knees during Mass.

Some sources note that this vestment was a type of “liturgical veil,” and was one of the vestments donned as part of a clothing ceremony.

Gremial of Archbishop Juan de Zumárranga, Spain or Mexico, 1528-37, Embroidered velvet with gold, silver, and silk threads, 39 3/8 x 39 3/4 inches, Museo Nacional Del Virreinato/CONACULTA, INAH, Tepotzotlán, Mexico, 10-1257

One of the most unique gremiales I found was that which belonged to the Archbishop Juan de Zumárranga, and is noted as the “oldest known embroidery in colonial Latin America” according to The Arts in Latin America, 1492-1820.  This gremiale is particularly unique because it is so covered in symbols, in contrast to the definition given above that gremiales had “no symbolical meaning”:

The gremial’s design is similar to that of earlier Spanish ceremonial cloths.  It is embroidered on blue velvet with gold and silver metallic and red silk threads and white silk appliques.  The text around the border reads ARMA MUNDI REDEM / TORIS REGIS REGUM / UNIVERSI CREATORIS / IHVXPI SALVATORUS (The arms of the Redeemer of the World, King of Kings, Creator of the Universe, Jesus Christ the Savior).  The shield in the center contains the cross and instruments of the Passions surrounded by a decorative foliate design and knotted Franciscan cords representing the order’s vows.  In the four corners are shields with the five bloody wounds of Christ, part of the Fransciscan coat of arms, surrounded by decorative borders.

One commentator thinks that the gremiale may “owe its origin to the Limus of the Victimarii”.  In a footnote he quotes Fosbroke:

Limus, Limum, Limocincti – An Apron descending from the navel to the ankles, commonly bordered with purple.  It was the only Vestment of the Victimarii.  It was interwoven with many colours, and was called Licium, when worn by the servants of Magistrates, who were called Limocincti.

This limus is an interesting word, by itself.  It is the Latin word that describes the apron worn by a sacrificing priest, or by attendants of a sacrifice in ancient Rome.  The limocinti were “certain priestly officers who attended on a magistrate, as girt with an apron (limus)”.  These victimarii were those persons designated to perform the animal sacrifices.

Many more modern examples of the gremiale can be found on the Cattolici Romani forum.

One of the best studies I’ve read about such aprons is Matthew Brown’s “Girded about with a Lambskin,” in the Journal of Book of Mormon Studies 6:2 (1997), p. 124-151.  His analysis includes a look at such ritual apparel in ancient Israel, Egypt, Mesopotamia, among the Freemasons, and in the Book of Mormon.

Gremiale – An Apron-like Catholic Liturgical Vestment

This unique coin is from sometime between 742 and 814 A.D. and depicts Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne, arrayed in his royal apparel. Matthew Brown describes it thus:

…wearing a crown, a pleated robe, and an apron that is decorated with a tree. The king also holds the sword, which in ancient times was regarded as a royal weapon.

Diane Wirth, a writer and lecturer on Mesoamerican iconography, describes the design on this apron as the “Tree of Life”. Brown corroborates when he says that the king himself, in the ancient Near East, was often seen as a “personification of that tree”.

Brown continues that “Since the king of Israel was considered to be the personification of Adam…, we might ask whether his apron somehow imitated the fig leaf apron that was worn by Adam (see Genesis 3:7)”. Furthermore, “ancient Hebrew legends . . . taught that the tree of knowledge of good and evil was a fig tree and it was from this tree’s leaves that Adam constructed his apron”.

Another image of Emperor Charlemagne (see figure 297) likewise shows him wearing such plantlife iconography, whether trees or leaves, upon his breast.

King Charlemagne in Royal Apparel

Ancient Crowns: (left to right) Assyrian (Sennacherib), Assyrian (Sardanapalus III), Syrian (Tigrames), Assyrian (Nineveh), Persian (Persepolis). From www.bible-history.com/sketches/ancient/crowns.html

There is an interesting passage, of many, in Matthew Brown’s study of the temple, The Gate of Heaven, that caught my attention with regard to ancient crowns:

It is not known exactly what type of crown was worn by the Israelite kings, but we do know that the high priest of the temple wore a crown of pure gold. A single cord, string, or line (pathil) was used to secure the golden crown of the high priest onto the front of his white linen headress (see Exodus 28:36-38; Leviticus 8:9). This particular cord was dyed blue (see Exodus 28:36-37), suggesting by its color that it was symbolic or royal or heavenly status. It is presumed that this cord was tied off at the back of the head and its excess end or ends hung down freely. Perhaps a parallel can be seen in the long, decorated ribbons or lappets that are so often depicted hanging from the back or sides of the crowns that were worn by the ancient kings of Assyria, Egypt, and other Near Eastern nations.

Brown adds a detail about these crowns in a fascinating note taken from Spencer J. Palmer’s book Deity and Death:

The kings of India participated in a ceremony called the rajasuya in order that they might obtain access to heaven. “The rajasuya is without doubt an ascension ritually accomplished. The very first element of it is the prayaniya, a term which translates into ‘ascension’ . . . The king is clothed in sacred garments (‘The garment is connected with all the gods,’ says an ancient text); the garments are said to be marked in special ways, representative of the ceremony undertaken by the king. The garment consists of several parts, one of which is worn on the head (Widengren’s crown), the ends of which are tied into the upper garment. Throughout the ritual the king is called by the name of the various gods whom he is impersonating. He is taken back into primordial time and performs the same functions symbolically which the gods and the first king did at that time, by virtue of which they obtained heaven…”

I was curious what a “lappet” was. Wikipedia’s definition:

A lappet is a decorative flap or fold in a ceremonial headdress or garment… They remain strongly associated with religion. A bishop’s mitre has two lappets (infulæ) sewn to the back of it. The most famous usage of lappets occurs on the Papal Tiara.

Crowns with Strings, Ribbons, & Lappets

The tallit katan (literally the “little tallit”) is a white undergarment worn by the Jews, usually Orthodox or Hasidic, in order to fulfill the commandment given in Numbers 15:38-40 to make such a holy garment,

that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the Lord, and do them; and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go a whoring:
That ye may remember, and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God. (Num. 15:39-40; also found in Deut. 22:12)

In other words, the Jews wear this garment in remembrance of the covenants they have made with God. Other illuminating points to consider are:

• It is a rectangular piece of cloth with a large hole cut in the center for the head to pass through, and tzitzit (fringes or hanging threads) attached to the four corners of the garment.
• The tzitzit are specifically the symbols upon which the observant Jew looks to remember his or her covenants. The number, type, and form of the knots and ties in the tzitzit literally remind one of God and the commandments.
• Traditionally made of wool, but cotton and linen are also widely used.
• Worn daily, at all times, customarily by Orthodox men, but also by women. The wearing of it is deemed so important that one site states: “Highly observant Jews will not take four steps without wearing the tzitzit because it is a mitzvah [commandment] to wear it all the time.”
• Traditionally worn under a shirt, but over an undershirt, so as not to directly touch the skin (to conform to societal dress codes).
• Often received on a special occasion in life, such as marriage or bar mitzvah (when adolescents come to the age of accountability).
• Despite the tradition of this commandment being first given in Numbers and Deuteronomy, some Biblical scholars have noted the practice has precedence before those codes were written, and was not limited to Israel – “images of the custom have been found on several ancient Near East inscriptions in contexts suggesting that it was practiced across the Near East. Some scholars believe that the practice among ancients originated due to the wearing of animal skins, which have legs at each corner, and that later fabrics symbolized the presence of such legs, first by the use of amulets, and later by tzitzit.”
• “Prof. Milgrom writes that tassels were used in the ancient world as an insignia signifying the status of its wearer, often his rank within the court of the ruler. The tzitzit thus indicated that its bearer was a Jew.”
• One site mentions how such a garment was worn by ancient egyptian priests to “indicate their chosen status,” and when the Lord gave the commandment to the Jews it was likewise “to indicate their priestly status before Him as ‘a kingdom of priests’.”
• Burial takes place after a ritual washing of the body and by dressing the body with a tallit and other sacred clothing.
• We are told that Jesus Christ wore such a garment, and he took note that it had special sacred significance and was not to be flaunted before men as the scribes and Pharisees were wont to do – “But they do all their deeds to be noticed by men; for they broaden their phylacteries and lengthen the tassels of their garments” (Matthew 23:5). (See Matthew 9:22-23, 14:34-36)

Such practice even crosses over into Eastern Orthodoxy where upon doning the stole the bishop or priest reads a prayer from Psalms 133:

Blessed is God Who poureth out His grace upon His priests, like unto the precious ointment on the head, which runneth down upon the beard, even the beard of Aaron, which runneth down upon the fringe of his raiment [garment].

Certainly one who respects the Jews for their religious tradition, and Christ for his, of wearing such sacred clothing might also afford the Latter-day Saints’ the same opportunity.

Tallit Katan – The Sacred Undergarment of Judaism

The exhibition attempts to synthesize the literary sources with finds that have been excavated in this country, particularly over the past fifty years: architectural remains, liturgical objects from churches, personal belongings of the Christian inhabitants of this land, and souvenirs made for pilgrims.

They have made an effort to separate the artifacts from the religious doctrines, trying to present the artifacts as they are, objectively.

I found several things interesting as I browsed the website of the exhibition:

1. “His disciples – the Apostles – were twelve in number – a symbolic figure, evoking the Twelve Tribes of Israel.”
2. “This inscribed stone fragment belonged to one of a series of stone slabs that stood in the court of the Temple in Jerusalem and served as a divider between the area permitted to both Jews and Gentiles and the area permitted only to Jews. . . . The existence of such a divider in the Temple court is attested by Josephus: “in this (balustrade) at regular intervals stood slabs giving warning, some in Greek, others in Latin characters, of the law of purification, to wit that no foreigner was permitted to enter the holy place…” (Jewish War, V, 193-198). The actual inscription read thus: “No foreigner shall enter within the balustrade of the Temple, or within the precint, and whosoever shall be caught shall be responsible for (his) death that will follow in consequence (of his trespassing).”
   

   Prohibition of Entry to the Temple

3. Regarding early church buildings, “The structure of the church edifice made it possible to maintain a separation between the members of the congregation and the catechumens, who had not yet been baptized and were therefore only permitted to take part in some of the rites.”
4. “The functionaries of the church included the bishop, the priest, and the deacon, as well as various assistants. One could become a priest from the age of thirty and a deacon from the age of twenty-five. Women could also serve the church, as deaconesses. The large churches were headed by a bishop (episkopos), accompanied by a council of elders (presbyters). The deacons assisted the bishop with the collection of donations and the distribution of charity, and helped him perform the various rites. In the East, married men were not prevented from joining the clergy.”
5. “The apse and the raised platform in front of it – the bema – were surrounded by a low stone partition – the chancel screen – which separated the congregation from the sacred area, where the liturgical rites were performed. The officiating clergy sat on benches built along the walls of the apse, with the bishop in the center. Toward the front of the bema stood the altar, beneath which, in a depression in the floor, a reliquary was hidden. Additional tables, on which the Scriptures and various liturgical objects were placed, also stood on the bema.”
   

   An Early Christian Church

6. “The rite of baptism – symbolizing the purification of sins and rebirth – marks an individual’s acceptance into the Church. In the Byzantine period, this rite was only performed after the candidate for conversion (catechumen) had completed a rigorous course of study. During this lengthy ceremony, the catechumen was immersed in water, anointed with oil, and dressed in a pure white garment. Only then was he or she permitted to enter the church and participate in the Eucharist by partaking of the holy bread and wine.”
   

   Baptismal Font

7. “The most important part of the Christian liturgy was the Eucharist, in which the participants partook of the holy bread and wine – symbols of the body and blood of Jesus serving as a reminder of his sacrifice. The liturgical vessels that were set upon the altar during the ceremony included ewers of wine and water, a strainer, chalices, and patens (plates) for the holy bread.”
8. “The painting depicts three figures wearing halos – apparently representing saints -their arms outstretched in an attitude of prayer. Their manner of dress is characteristic of that of Christian clergymen in the Byzantine period.”
9. “In the rooms adjoining the church, the liturgical items were stored: the vessels used in the Eucharist, the holy books, processional objects, and the liturgical vestments. In addition to these precious objects, funds and gifts acquired by the church through donations, through the leasing of property that had been bequeathed to the church, and through the fulfillment of vows was also stored in the treasury, just as they had been stored in the temples in previous periods. It was forbidden to sell this property, unless this were necessary in order to pay for the release of prisoners or the redemption of captives. The donations of the faithful – both congregants and pilgrims – were the main source of the church’s wealth and were used for its maintenance and renovation.”

There are many more fascinating early Christian artifacts on the website of this exhibition. We thank thee, O God, for a prophet, who has restored these things in the latter-days.

An Early Christian Church Exhibit